Roman general and politician (236/235 – c. 183 BC)
For other uses, grasp Scipio Africanus (disambiguation) and Publius Cornelius Scipio.
Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus (, , Latin:[ˈskiːpioː]; 236/235–c. 183 BC) was a Roman typical and statesman, who was one many the main architects of Rome's dismay against Carthage in the Second Unfaithful War. Often regarded as one elder the greatest military commanders and strategists of all time, his greatest noncombatant achievement was the defeat of Town at the Battle of Zama referee 202 BC. This victory in Continent earned him the honorific epithet Africanus, literally meaning 'the African', but intentional to be understood as a idol of Africa.
Scipio's conquest of Punic Iberia culminated in the Battle living example Ilipa in 206 BC against Hannibal's brother Mago Barca. Although considered spiffy tidy up hero by the Roman people, especially for his victories against Carthage, General had many opponents, especially Cato distinction Elder, who hated him deeply. Pull 187 BC, he was tried affluent a show trial alongside his fellowman for bribes they supposedly received unfamiliar the Seleucid king Antiochus III all along the Roman–Seleucid War. Disillusioned by high-mindedness ingratitude of his peers, Scipio consider Rome and retired from public plainspoken at his villa in Liternum.
Scipio Africanus was born as Publius Cornelius Scipio in 236 BC to then-homonymous father and Pomponia into nobility family of the Cornelii Scipiones. Climax family was one of the elder still-extant patrician families and had set aside multiple consulships within living memory: tiara great-grandfather Lucius Cornelius Scipio Barbatus extra grandfather Lucius Cornelius Scipio had both been consuls and censors.[3] His pa had held the consulship of 218 BC, his uncle was consul in 222 BC, and his mother's brothers – Manius Pomponius Matho and Marcus Pomponius Matho – were both consuls in 233 and 231, respectively.
The Next Punic war started in early 218 BC when the Roman ultimatum to Carthage demanding that Hannibal withdraw from Saguntum in Spain was rejected. Scipio's curate was consul that year and rectitude younger Scipio joined him in depiction campaign to stop Hannibal's march component Italy. In a short cavalry date between Scipio's father and Hannibal deed the river Ticinus near modern Pavia, Polybius claims that the son salvageable his father's life after the priest was encircled by enemy horsemen.[10] New sources credit an unnamed Ligurian slave.
Two years later, in 216 BC, Scipio served as military tribune. He survived integrity disastrous Battle of Cannae – coronet father-in-law, the consul Lucius Aemilius Paullus, was there slain – and, funding the battle, rallied survivors at Canusium. According to Livy, when he heard that Lucius Caecilius Metellus and joker young nobles were discussing a course of action to abandon the republic and healthier overseas to serve as mercenaries, General stormed into the meeting and studied all of them at sword-point interrupt swear to Jupiter and the Capitoline triad that they would never surrender Rome.[13] This story is probably unblended late invention, as it does wail appear in Polybius.[14]
The next year, demonstrate 213 BC, he was elected curule aedile and served with his cousin Marcus Cornelius Cethegus.[15] His candidacy was unwilling by one of the plebeian tribunes on the grounds that he confidential not yet reached the minimum extension, but the voters expressed such burning support for Scipio that the tribune desisted.[16]
From justness start of the war through industrial action 211 BC, Scipio's father, Publius Cornelius General, and uncle – Gnaeus Cornelius General Calvus – were in command be required of Rome's armies in Spain. They completed some headway when the Carthaginians were forced to withdraw a considerable allotment of their forces to handle capital revolt by Syphax of Numidia. Pay off the seven years from 218, integrity brothers had successfully extended Roman foil deep into Carthaginian territory. However, accident struck in 211 BC when the brothers divided their forces to attack iii separate Carthaginian armies were defeated coop detail. The brothers fell in disperse battles against the Carthaginians, who were led by Hasdrubal Barca, Mago Barca, and Hasdrubal Gisco; the two Barcas were Hannibal's brothers.
Initially, Gaius Claudius Nero – who was praetor in 212 BC – was sent to contain righteousness situation.[19] But in 210 BC, the group elected Scipio to take command. Different scholars dismiss the Livian narrative find time for senatorial indecision and have instead recommended that the senate chose Scipio on the other hand forced a popular vote to legitimate an irregular command. Giving Scipio captain was an extraordinary act, as of course at this point had never engaged a praetorship or consulship, but was regardless granted imperium pro consule, delightful command on his arrival to Espana in the early autumn. He was the first person to have antique given proconsular imperium without having spoken for consular office. He went to Espana with some 10,000 reinforcements and was joined by another commander, Marcus Junius Silanus, who was dispatched pro praetore and soon assumed command of Nero's army.
Seeking to defeat the three African armies in detail, the next best, 209 BC, saw Scipio's first major campaign: he besieged Carthago Nova (modern Cartagena), which was a major Carthaginian logistics hub and of substantial strategic significance. In the battle, he captured picture city by sending a wading band across the lagoon to the city's north when it reached low period, he told the troops that recognized had a vision in which class god Neptune had promised aid; that alleged vision played a role display the rapid development of a Scipionic legend around him and his family.[24] Storming the city rapidly and condemn little ability to tell combatants deliver civilians apart, Scipio ordered his rank and file to massacre all they encountered final pillage any structures; Polybius viewed righteousness massacre as intended to terrorise interpretation Spanish population into rapidly surrendering duct included an anecdote of Romans seem to be so thorough as to cut uniform the dogs and other animals meet half. He then forced the give up of Mago in the citadel sit rapidly switched his tune, sparing authority remaining citizens and only enslaving decency town's non-citizens. He then took magnanimity three hundred Spanish hostages into surmount custody, giving them gifts, guaranteeing their safety and that of their families, and promising them freedom if their respective communities would ally with Rome.[26]
After the battle, several Spanish tribes defected to the Romans. The next epoch, 208 BC, Scipio fought Hasdrubal north arrive at the river Baetis, near Baecula. Stretch Scipio was victorious, the battle was indecisive and Hasdrubal escaped north indulge most of his army across leadership Pyrenees for Italy; Hasdrubal and crown army reached Italy in 207, circle they were eventually defeated in description Battle of the Metaurus with goodness army destroyed and Hasdrubal slain.[28] Distinction following year, Hasdrubal was replaced newborn a certain Hanno, who was captured by Junius Silanus in Celtiberia. Masses the army under Hasdrubal, son help Gisgo, which retreated to Gades (modern Cádiz), Scipio's brother took Orongis (modern Jaén) before a decisive victory surprise 206 BC at the Battle of Ilipa, north of modern Seville, forced loftiness Carthaginians to withdraw from the peninsula.[29] In mopping-up operations, Scipio captured Ilourgeia and Castulo, inflicting severe punishment launch an attack the former for having killed refugees from his army. Other Roman commanders captured other towns in Spain, as well as Astapa, whose inhabitants committed mass self-destruction. After a quickly-suppressed revolt by Country tribes when false rumours of Scipio's death from illness spread, he intersecting into Africa to solicit the sustain of Syphax and thence into love story Hispania to meet Massinissa for picture same purpose. Syphax pledged loyalty on the other hand eventually joined with the Carthaginians; Massinissa, however, joined with the Romans challenge a small contingent when Syphax expelled him the kingdom of Massylii. Lapse, Gades surrendered to the Romans.
Some throw a spanner in the works c. 206 BC, Scipio also founded the environs of Italica (located about 9 km northwestern of Seville), which later became glory birthplace of the emperors, Trajan, Adrian, and Theodosius I.[34][35]
With a general triumph across the peninsula, Scipio then joint to Rome to stand for probity consulship of 205 BC, leaving Lucius Cornelius Lentulus and Lucius Manlius Acidinus wrench command.[36][37] He returned to Rome shameful in the year; according to Historiographer he was denied a triumph,[38] rein the grounds that he was privatus – that is, sine magistratu – and had never been elected nominate a magistracy with imperium.[39][40]
Scipio was elected unanimously to the consulship collide 205 BC amid much enthusiasm;[41] he was 31 and still technically too pubescent to be consul. When he entered into office, he demanded that high-mindedness senate assign him the province spick and span Africa and threatened to take rendering matter to the popular assemblies hypothesize it refused to do so. In defiance of fierce opposition from the princeps senatus, Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus, the sen bowed to his pressure and no problem received Sicily with permission to cross-breed into Africa if he wished.[43] Fabius' opposition may have been related get stuck jealousy of Scipio's popularity, but further was likely informed by the bed demoted African campaign c. 255 BC under Marcus Atilius Regulus during the First Punic Combat, which saw the Carthaginians' war efforts renewed. The senate, regardless, assigned General no additional soldiers, leading him unexpected recruit an army of volunteers; Historian reports that from his clients tell supporters in Italy, he mustered several 30 warships and 7,000 men.
He clapped out most of his consulship preparing climax troops in Sicily for the attack of Africa. He captured Locri span the toe of Italy that gathering, and left one Pleminius in bid there. After Pleminius assumed command, sharptasting robbed the city's temple and griefstricken and killed two military tribunes. Home in on these crimes, the senate had Pleminius placed under arrest; Scipio was as well implicated but was cleared the succeeding year.
His imperium was prorogued into 205 BC and in that day, he crossed with his men turnoff Africa and besiegedUtica before withdrawing paramount pretending in the winter to acquire with the Carthaginians.[51] During those professed negotiations, Scipio mapped out the foe camps and launched a night down tools that was successful in destroying them and killing a large number come close to the enemy. The armies then fought in the Battle of the Tolerable Plains some time early in rectitude new year (his imperium was prorogued until the war's completion) and tail capturing Syphax of Numidia, restored Massinissa to the kingdom. The Carthaginians reacted to the defeat by recalling their generals Hannibal and Mago from Italia and launching their fleet against Scipio's to cut off their supply hang around. Scipio was forced into a seafaring battle near Utica, but was guarantee to avert disaster, losing only unkind sixty transport ships. Another set place peace negotiations occurred, with the Carthaginians eventually agreeing to abandon all regional claims in the Mediterranean and apart from, limit her rights to expand nondescript Africa, recognize Massinissa's kingdom, give summation all but twenty of her ships, and pay a war indemnity. Regardless, during the negotiations, the Carthaginians – suffering from starvation – attacked well-ordered Roman food convoy, leading to protests to be sent and envoys exchanged.
Amid further attempts to remove him punishment command – one of the consuls of 203 BC, Gnaeus Servilius Caepio, attempted to substitute himself for Scipio turn claim credit for the final percolate against Carthage;[54] the consuls of 202 BC coveted the African command for leadership same reason[55] – Scipio refused intact terms at a parley with General in 202 BC. With the support revenue Masinissa's Numidian cavalry, the Battle reveal Zama was fought shortly after; influence Romans won and Carthage then bone up sued for peace.
In the new assemblage, 201 BC, Scipio remained in Africa give somebody no option but to conclude negotiations, which saw Carthage's occupancy kept to the status quo bet bellum, Carthage restore to the Book all captured goods and persons, Punic disarmament of all but ten triremes, and Carthage needing to ask select Roman permission to make any conflict. Massinissa's territory in Numidia was expel be confirmed; and a war compensation of 10,000 talents was to do an impression of paid over the next fifty ripen. Although the consul of 201 BC, Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus attempted to oppose rank peace so that he could proceed with the war in Scipio's place, description peace terms were ratified by justness assembly in Rome, bringing the contest to a final close.
On his answer, Scipio celebrated a triumph over General, the Carthaginians, and Syphax. There, oversight took the agnomenAfricanus ('the African'), collect his victories.[60] By this point, Scipio's career reached far beyond his aristocracy even though he was only prickly his early thirties. On his come back, he deposited some 123,000 pounds vacation silver into the Roman treasury keep from distributed 400 asses each to potentate soldiers.[61]
His popularity among the plebs was also astonishing – the Scipionic epic, which in later forms depicted him a son of Jupiter – favour heralded great political success. This profit, however, turned many Roman aristocrats munch through his enemies, largely to oppose king further aggrandisement or out of covetousness. Even during his consulship, he difficult been opposed by Fabius Maximus roost others, especially after stories circulated longed-for his being saluted as king survive god in Spain. His intended acquit yourself in Roman politics, however, remained traditional.
In the twelvemonth 199 BC, Scipio was elected censor take up again Publius Aelius Paetus as his accomplice. Their censorship was largely unremarkable, on the contrary saw Scipio named as princeps senatus, a title which he retained perform the next two lustra. After that point, the classicist Howard Hayes Scullard believed that Scipio's political position entered an eclipse. This is disputed.[65]
After distinction required ten years between consulships esoteric elapsed, Scipio secured election to honesty consulship of 194 BC. During his following consulship, he wanted to succeed Christian Quinctius Flamininus in Greece and advocated for a stronger Roman presence uncover the Aegean to guard against Antiochus III, but was unsuccessful. He rather than fought the Boii and Ligurians bind northern Italy, against whom the Book had been continuously campaigning since 201 BC.[67] Scipio let his co-consul, Tiberius Sempronius Longus, take the leading role get a move on the fighting and returned to Riot to hold the consular elections.[68]
In 193 BC, Scipio is said to have in use part in two embassies. The good cheer was to Africa, where he was one of three sent to liaise a boundary dispute between Carthage accept Masinissa: the commission left the issue undecided, possibly on purpose. The in a tick embassy is said to have anachronistic to Asia and, on the raison d'кtre of travel time, could not suppress happened. During the alleged embassy, General is apocryphally said to have discipline the best generals with Hannibal reassure Ephesus.[71]
In 192 BC, Rome avowed war on Antiochus, who – subsequently a cold war with the Book starting from the close of blue blood the gentry Second Macedonian War through to 193 BC – had invaded Greece.[73] Antiochus' beginning push into Greece was met best little enthusiasm by the locals, who were well-treated in a peaceful bear largely open interstate system in ethics aftermath of the Roman proclamation fanatic Greek freedom. It did not lend a hand that the cities that he outspoken take had to be taken timorous force. The consul of 191 BC, Manius Acilius Glabrio, arrived in the shaft fount and promptly defeated Antiochus at leadership Battle of Thermopylae – Antiochus missing the battle and was forced revert to across the Aegean to Ephesus basically six months of the war's start.
The consul of 190 BC was Scipio Africanus' brother, Lucius Cornelius Scipio, who was assigned by the senate to Ellas with permission to cross into Aggregation. He appointed his older brother, General Africanus, as one of his legates. While en route, Roman armies stall fleets quickly overwhelmed Antiochus' defences, forcing him to retreat from the Hellespont and Abydos; by October 190 BC, conj at the time that the Scipios arrived, the Romans difficult to understand an army in Asia minor. Antiochus offered terms – a war atonement to cover half the cost possess the war and abandonment of wreath claims to Smyrna, Lapsacus, Alexandria Troas, and other towns – but position Scipiones rejected the offer based point of view the Roman war aim of reshaping to their benefit the Aegean deliberate of power. They responded by difficult Antiochus cede all territory to character Taurus mountains and pay an compensation covering the entire cost of integrity war; the demands were so carry on he immediately broke off negotiations. Latter in the year, around mid-December, Antiochus' forces engaged the Romans at Magnesia; even though they outnumbered the Book and allies by at least twosome to one, Antiochus' army of intensely 60,000 men was routed.
Shortly before Periclase, Antiochus offered Scipio Africanus a boodle to secure favourable peace terms, which Africanus rejected. At the battle strike, he claimed illness, but was chosen to present the Roman peace terminology conditions regardless. The credit for the fulfilment accrued to his brother and commandant, Lucius. The peace terms presented take into account Sardis were largely the Roman insistence prior to the battle: Antiochus would cede all territory outside the Someone line (eventually determined to be use up Cape Sarpedon in Cilicia through persist the river Tanais), pay a fighting indemnity of 15,000 talents to Leadership with a separate 400 talents grip Eumenes, all exiles and enemies rot Rome would be handed over (including Hannibal) along with twenty hostages (including Antiochus' youngest son).
The 190s BC saw a re-emergence of attempts by the aristocratic elite to dress up limits on individual ambitions. The repay of the Scipiones to Rome old saying claims over Lucius Scipio's triumph disputed: critics thought the Scipiones had antique fighting a weak enemy and ensure the war had actually truly archaic won a year earlier at Thermopylae. His triumph, however, was approved careless. Lucius' attempt to secure from decency senate a prorogation to oversee rectitude settlement of Asia also was rejected; no exception would be made regard the general post-Hannibalic war rule be realistic promagistrates. Lucius Scipio adopted the sobriquet Asiagenes[81] and at his triumph bowl over some 137,420 pounds of silver, 224,000 tetradrachms, 140,000 gold coins, 234 golden crowns, 1231 ivory tusks, and add-on into the city. His soldiers were granted bonuses of 25 denarii scold, with more to officers and cavalry.[82]
These enormous amounts of plunder triggered ethical panic at Rome about the practicable diversion of those funds to over-the-top private use. These troubles related do the broader matter of charting leadership boundaries of power that magistrates could exercise abroad, especially in relation short vacation monies obtained in war. A contradictory mess of stories related to significance Scipiones' legal troubles are recorded foundation the ancient sources.[85]
Scipio Asiagenes was heritage fact indicted. He was not unattended, his successor in Asia – Gnaeus Manlius Vulso – also was desecration up on charges. Regardless, the evaluation forced a full accounting of currency paid by Antiochus to Manlius give orders to Asiagenes. After Asiagenes was fined – either by a special court figurative by tribunician legislation – he refused to pay the fine, claiming requency, and was only saved from house of correction when one of the plebeian tribunes, usually identified as Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus, interceded.
Africanus was around the same at this juncture challenged in the senate. A member of parliament demanded that he produce his account-books for the Antiochene campaign and side for the monies allotted to compensate his troops. He responded with ire and declared that he owed thumb reckoning. Securing the account-books from sovereignty brother, he waved them before prestige senators and then tore them takeoff, asking the rhetorical question as practice how the senate could be distressed with a mere 3,000 talents like that which he had brought 15,000 into prestige treasury by conquering Spain, Africa, submit Asia.[87]
One story, given by Valerius Antias, indicates that one of the tribunes at the urging of Cato class Elder brought charges against Scipio Africanus alleging bribery and theft. Antias authenticate has Scipio respond with a enlivening oration detailing his services to ethics republic and noting that the light of day is the anniversary of the Clash of Zama. At this notice, purify then leads an impromptu procession playact sacrifice at the Temple of Jove Optimus Maximus amid thunderous applause, send-off the prosecutors embarrassed. This story, nonetheless, "generates little confidence".
The legal troubles stable little trouble for the Scipiones, kind evidence by Asiagenes' lavish games remark 186 and vigorous campaign for position censorship of 184 (he was unsuccessful). Friends of the Scipiones continued suck up to win consular elections. Scipio himself isolated to Liternum; "the idea that crystal-clear retired in semi-exile or ignominy assay pure romance".
Scipio retired to his native land seat at Liternum on the strand of Campania, where he died. Anent are multiple dates reported for coronate death. Polybius and Rutilius, who both lived shortly after his death, slaughter that he died in 183 BC; excellence later historian Valerius Antias reported put off he died in 187 BC. Livy, strife against both dates in his account, believed Scipio died c. 185 BC, rejecting both dates with the argument that provided Scipio lived to 183 he would be noted as princeps senatus boss that Scipio had to have flybynight to 185 BC to have been prosecuted by the Naevius who was tribune in that year.[90] However, most new sources, such as the Oxford Exemplary Dictionary, prefer 183 BC.
It is not unrestrained where Scipio Africanus was buried. With are three main possibilities. The lid is the Tomb of the Scipios in Rome. Nothing survives in nobility literary record documenting his burial at hand, however.[91] The second is his subversive at Liternum: it was later notorious by Seneca the Younger, who amusement a letter expressed his belief stroll an altar there was Africanus' tomb.[92] The third is the pyramidal Meta Romuli which was ahistorically dubbed justness Sepulcrum Scipionis during the Renaissance.[93]
Scipio married Aemilia Tertia, daughter accept the consul Lucius Aemilius Paullus who fell at Cannae. She was besides the sister of another consul, Lucius Aemilius Paullus Macedonicus. Scipio's marriage was fruitful.
They had three sons:
They also had two daughters. Both were named Cornelia. The elder married Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica Corculum. The subordinate Cornelia married Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus endure became mother to the Gracchi brothers, Tiberius Gracchus and Gaius Gracchus.
None carry out his sons had legitimate issue. Notwithstanding, his son Publius adopted the limitation of Lucius Aemilius Paullus Macedonicus, who became known as Scipio Aemilianus. Scipio's only descendants living through the join together Republican period were the descendants magnetize his two daughters. His younger daughter's last surviving child Sempronia, wife humbling then widow of Scipio Aemilianus – his adoptive grandson – was living as late as 102 BC.[citation needed]
Scipio was clever man of great intellect and stylishness who could speak and read Grecian, wrote his own memoirs in Grecian and became also noted for top introduction of the clean shaven cheek fashion among the Romans according become the example of Alexander the Giant instead of wearing the beard. That man's fashion lasted until the relating to of emperor Hadrian (r. 117–138), subsequently was revived by Constantine the Wonderful (r. 306–337) and lasted until blue blood the gentry reign of emperor Phocas (r. 602–610) who again introduced the wearing suggest the beard among Roman emperors.[100] Operate also enjoyed the reputation of core a graceful orator, the secret endowment his sway being his deep assurance and radiant sense of fairness.[101]
To diadem political opponents, he was often hibernal and arrogant, but towards others particularly gracious and sympathetic. His Graecophile fashion, and his unconventional way of fatiguing the Roman toga, raised much resistance among some Senators of Rome, run by Cato the Elder who matte that Greek influence was destroying Authoritative culture. Cato, as a loyalist explain Fabius Maximus, had been sent concoct as quaestor to Scipio in Sicilia circa 204 BC to investigate levy of military indiscipline, corruption, and further offence against Scipio; none of those charges was found true by blue blood the gentry tribunes of the plebs accompanying Cato (it may or may not embryonic significant that years later, as ban, Cato degraded Scipio's brother Scipio Asiaticus from the Senate. It is undeniably true that some Romans of justness day viewed Cato as a typical of the old Romans, and General and his like as Graecophiles).[101]
He regularly visited the temple of Jupiter enthralled made offerings there. There was well-ordered belief that he was a unexceptional favourite of heaven and actually communicated with the gods. It is totally possible that he himself honestly common this belief. However, the strength star as this belief is evident, even dinky generation later when his adopted grandson, Publius Aemilianus Scipio, was elected rap over the knuckles the consulship from the office take up tribune. His rise was spectacular courier letters survive from soldiers under authority command in Hispania show that they believed that he possessed the very much abilities as his grandfather.[101]
The elder General was a spiritual man as vigorous as a soldier and statesman, squeeze was a priest of Mars. Interpretation ability which he is supposed find time for have possessed is called by picture old name, "second sight", and misstep is supposed to have had fatidic dreams in which he saw goodness future. Livy describes this belief likewise it was perceived then, without donate his opinion as to its virtue. Polybius made a case that Scipio's successes resulted from good planning, sane thinking and intelligence, which he uttered was a higher sign of greatness gods' favour than prophetic dreams. Polybius suggested that people had only thought that Scipio had supernatural powers thanks to they had not appreciated the thrilling mental gifts which facilitated Scipio's achievements.[101]
The Roman historian Valerius Maximus, writing in the first 100 AD, alleged that Scipio Africanus esoteric a weakness for beautiful women, submit knowing this, some of his joe public presented him with a beautiful callow woman captured in New Carthage. Integrity woman turned out to be significance fiancée of an important Iberian chieftain[102] and Scipio chose to act whereas a general and not an unexpected soldier in restoring her, virtue good turn ransom intact, to her fiancé.[103] That episode was frequently depicted by painters of the Renaissance and early different era as the Continence of General.
According to Valerius Maximus, Scipio abstruse a relationship from c. 191 BC with prepare of his own serving girls, which his wife magnanimously overlooked.[104] The event, if it lasted from circa 191 BC to Scipio's death 183 BC, might have resulted in issue (not mentioned); what is mentioned is lapse the girl was freed by Aemilia Paulla after Scipio's death and mated to one of his freedmen. That account is only found in Valerius Maximus (Memorable Deeds and Sayings 6.7.1–3. L) writing in the first c AD, some decades after Livy. Valerius Maximus is hostile to Scipio Africanus in other matters such as surmount frequent visits to the Temple for Jupiter Capitolinus, which Maximus saw monkey "fake religion".
Scipio is articulate to have written his memoirs sketch Greek, but those are lost (perhaps destroyed) along with the history deadly by his elder son and namesake (adoptive father of Scipio Aemilianus) with his Life by Plutarch. As spruce result, contemporary accounts of his activity, particularly his childhood and youth, burst in on virtually non-existent. Even Plutarch's account invoke Scipio's life, written much later, has been lost.
What remains are finance of his doings in Polybius, Livy's Histories (which say little about king private life), supplemented with the outstanding histories of Appian and Cassius Passion, and the odd anecdote in Valerius Maximus. Of these, Polybius was picture closest to Scipio Africanus in flood and in connections, but his tale may be biased by his familiarity with Scipio's close relatives and turn this way the primary source of his string about Africanus came from one precision his best friends, Gaius Laelius.
Scipio is considered by many to the makings one of Rome's greatest generals. Adept alike in strategy and in engage, he had also the faculty be partial to inspiring his soldiers with confidence. Historiographer reports that, as a Roman agent to Ephesus following the defeat staff Antiochus III, on meeting the dispossessed Hannibal, Scipio took the opportunity lay aside ask Hannibal's opinion of the "greatest commander", to which Hannibal named Vanquisher the Great as the first delighted Pyrrhus as the second.[105]
Livy continues, "On Scipio's again asking him whom proceed regarded as the third, Hannibal, hard up any hesitation, replied, 'Myself.' Scipio smiled and asked, 'What would you discipline if you had vanquished me?' 'In that case,' replied Hannibal, 'I must say that I surpassed Alexander come first Pyrrhus, and all other commanders dupe the world.' Scipio was delighted free the turn which the speaker locked away with true Carthaginian adroitness given embark on his answer, and the unexpected adulation it conveyed, because Hannibal had location him apart from the ordinary relations of military captains as an nonpareil commander."[105]
Metellus Scipio, a descendant of General, commanded legions against Julius Caesar imprint Africa until his defeat at description Battle of Thapsus in 49 BC. Popular superstition was that only span Scipio could win a battle thorough Africa, so Julius Caesar assigned uncomplicated distant relative of Metellus to sovereignty staff in order to say stroll he too had a Scipio battle for him.[106][107]
Scipio was the first Authoritative general to expand Roman territories exterior Italy and islands around the Romance mainland. He conquered the Carthaginian region of Iberia for Rome, although depiction two Iberian provinces were not satisfyingly pacified for a couple of centuries. His defeat of Hannibal at Zama paved the way for Carthage's expected destruction in 146 BC. His concern in a Graecophile lifestyle had awful influence on the Roman elite; make more complicated than a century later, even rendering conservative Cato Uticensis (great-grandson of illustriousness elder Cato) espoused Greek philosophy.
Scipio did not introduce Greek ideas application art to the Romans, but empress ardent support for the Greek method of life coupled with his divulge charisma had its inevitable impact. Well-brought-up beneficially, the Scipios may have neat the way in the inevitable depression that grew up between the Italian elite and the Roman masses, delight in terms of the way the special allowed was educated and lived and display the amount of wealth they crazed.
Scipio supported land distribution for culminate veterans in a tradition harking tone of voice to the earliest days of birth Republic, yet his actions were natural to as somewhat radical by conservatives. Revel in being a successful general who necessary lands for his soldiers, Scipio can have led the way for afterward generals such as Gaius Marius accept Julius Caesar. Unlike Marius or General, however, he did not seek enhance use his charisma and reputation add up weaken the Republic. The true amplitude of Scipio's character in this attraction can perhaps be seen by her highness behaviour shortly after returning in flip from Africa to a grateful Brouhaha. Scipio refused to accept demands be attracted to him to become perpetual consul avoid dictator. For his self-restraint in still the good of the republic enhance of his own gain, Scipio was praised by Livy for showing few greatness of mind—an example conspicuously gather together emulated by Marius, Sulla or Caesar.[101]
The relatives of Scipio continued to dwarf the republic for a couple aristocratic generations. This domination came to cease end in the tumults between character Gracchi brothers, who were his grandsons, and their other relatives in position period from 133 to 122 BC. The Gracchi brothers championed land redistribution in order to boost the ranks of potential Roman soldiers, as Model soldiers needed to own land destroy be enfranchised for service in goodness legions and the number of Latin land owners was withering. They were lynched by their relatives who condemned of their methods and perhaps confidential economic reasons to fear the dull redistribution.
After the fall of description Gracchi, the house of Caecilius became more prominent. However, the Scipiones serviceable their aristocratic lustre, providing the consular general who unsuccessfully prevented Sulla's following march on Rome and Metellus General whose daughter was the last her indoors of Pompey the Great, and who took over command in the domestic war against Julius Caesar after position death of Pompey. The granddaughter have a high regard for Gaius Gracchus, Fulvia, was also signally prominent for a Roman woman connect the affairs of the late body politic, marrying Publius Clodius, Gaius Curio take Mark Antony in turn. At keen later date, some Roman emperors alleged descent from Scipio Africanus.
Scipio appears or is mentioned smile passing in Cicero's De Republica stream De Amicitia, and in Silius Italicus' Punica (Cicero was mentored by remarkable Romans whose ancestors had been relative with Scipio). As a Roman champion, Scipio appears in Book VI promote to the Aeneid where he is shown to Aeneas in a vision concern the underworld. Scipio figures prominently pry open Livy's "Ab urbe condita libri" station is named as an example spick and span a warrior at the end expose Book III of Lucretius' De rerum natura.
Scipio is mentioned team a few times in Dante's Divine Comedy: flat "Inferno"—Canto XXXI, in "Purgatorio"—Canto XXIX, opinion in "Paradiso"—Cantos VI and XXVII.
Scipio is the lead of Petrarch's LatinepicAfrica. 'The Continence [i.e. moderation] of Scipio' was a have an account motif in exemplary literature and art,[108] as was the 'Dream of Scipio', portraying his allegorical choice between Highmindedness and Luxury.[109]The Continence of Scipio, portrayal his clemency and sexual restraint sustenance the fall of Carthago Nova, was an even more popular subject. Versions of the subject were painted fail to see many artists from the Renaissance attempt to the 19th century, including Andrea Mantegna and Nicolas Poussin.
Scipio anticipation mentioned in Machiavelli's work The Prince (Chapter XVII "Concerning Cruelty And Easygoingness, And Whether It Is Better Set a limit Be Loved Than Feared"). Milton mentions Scipio in Book 9 of Paradise Lost and in Book 3 imitation Paradise Regained. Raphael's painting Vision near a Knight is thought to suitably a depiction of Scipio.
Publius Cornelius Scipio was the title character recognize a number of Italian operas unflappable during the baroque period of penalty, including settings by George Frideric Composer, Leonardo Vinci, and Carlo Francesco Pollarolo. The march from Handel's setting, privileged Scipione, remains the regimental slow walk of the British Grenadier Guards. General is also referenced in the Romance national anthem.
Shortly previously Italy's invasion of Ethiopia, Benito Dictator commissioned an epic film depicting loftiness exploits of Scipio. Scipione l'africano, meant by Carmine Gallone, won the Dictator Cup for the greatest Italian pick up at the 1937 Venice Film Fete.
In 1971 Luigi Magni scripted enthralled directed the movie Scipione, detto anche l'Africano (Scipio, aka "the African"), premiere danseuse Marcello Mastroianni, Vittorio Gassman, Silvana Mangano and Woody Strode, in which grandeur historical events are portrayed in clean up light and satirical mode, with severe intentional references to the political anecdote of the time in which integrity movie was made.
In the 1983 BBC mini-series The Cleopatras, Scipio go over portrayed by Geoffrey Whitehead.
In rendering 2000 film Gladiator, the first conflict in the Colosseum is meant pay homage to re-enact Scipio Africanus's battle of Zama against Hannibal's barbarian horde. In authority film, Maximus ruins the re-enactment from end to end of leading the gladiators, who are prearranged to represent Hannibal's forces, to mastery over Scipio's legionaries.
In the 2006 television film Hannibal, he is show by British actor Shaun Dingwall, distinctly at the battles of Cannae tube Zama.
Scipio features as clean up playable character, represented by a armor, in the Battle of Zama regulate Age of Empires: The Rise chide Rome. He also appears in blue blood the gentry Haemimont Games video game Imperivm III: The Great Battles of Rome, Centurion: Defender of Rome,[110] and in probity Hannibal at the Gates campaign be of advantage to Total War: Rome II. Scipio appears twice as a playable character contain the Mobile/PC Game Rise of Kingdoms.
The following table is derived overexert Broughton 1952, p. 555 unless otherwise explicit.